Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Management

continuing Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ManagementChronic obstructive pneumonic disease (COPD) is a multi-system disorder, resulting in multiple comorbidities and being the fourth common cause of mortality worldwide (1). Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is angiotensin converting enzyme of the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in COPD, through manifestations such as ischemic spunk disease, shopping mall failure, arrhythmias, stroke and sudden cardiac destruction (2,3). Moreover, in the last years, a tendency to paradigm shift occured, the chronic respiratory disease itself being defined as a modifiable cardiovascular risk factor (4,5).This interaction between COPD and cardiovascular disease could be explained either by shared risk factors (aging, smoking, exposure to air pollution and unresisting smoke, underprescribing of key cardiovascular medication, such as -blockers) or mechanisms of increased risk that are incompletely understood, beyond the conventional risk f actors (4,6).There is increasing usher that COPD negatively affect the cardiovascular and autonomic nervous system, leading to sympathovagal imbalance, with increased sympathetic tone, loss of parasympathetic tone and altered baroreceptor sensitivity, which are essential components of cardiovascular risk (7-9). Recurrent episodes of hypoxemia and/or hypercapnea, intrathoracic pressure swings resulting from airway obstruction and hyperinflation, systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, increased respiratory effort and physical in act can every last(predicate) be involved in autonomic dysfunction observed in COPD (8-10).Patients with COPD and functional alterations of cardiac autonomic modulation tend to have an elevated resting heart rate (11-13), reduced heart rate variability (HRV) (14), altered blood pressure variability (BPV) (15), an increase in muscle sympathetic nerve activity (16), reduced baroreflex sensitivity (17) and increased plasma norepinephrine level (9). Other clin cal findings related to sympathetic overdrive in COPD could be arterial stiffness, altered PWV and arterial compliance, as well as left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction which may occur through direct effect of tone, modulation of baroreceptor sensitivity or activation of the renin-angiotensin system (4, 18-22).Hypoxemia, hypercapnia, pulmonary hyperinflation and activity avoidance are involved in developping cardiac autonomic dysfunction but on the other(a) hand, these mechanisms are also responsible for exertional dyspnea and skeletal muscle deconditioning, including respiratory muscle dysfunction, in COPD patients (23,24). Thus develops a vicious spiral of physical deconditioning, afflicted quality of life and early development of cardiovascular comorbidities, leading eventually to increased hospitalization and mortality (25).The golden standard in COPD management is pulmonary rehabilitation, based on its main benefits, as resulted from clinical trials improved e xercise capacity and health-related quality of life, reduced symptoms and recovery after hospitalization, decreased anxiety and depression, trim the number of hospitalizations and days in the hospital (1, 26-28). The impact of cardiovascular comorbidities on clinical outcomes of pulmonary rehabilitation and vice versa is only partially investigated and understood. It seems that patients with metabolic and heart diseases might achieve lower degrees of improvement in exercise capacity or quality of life, but conflicting results from clinical trials have been published (29). Moreover, it is soundless unclear if pulmonary rehabilitation programs address cardiovascular risk factors in COPD patients, but there are encouraging results (30).Inspiratory muscle training (IMT) is a particular component of pulmonary rehabilitation, arising from the finding that inspiratory muscle dysfunction is an extrapulmonary manifestation of the disease which is often present in COPD patients. Inspiratory muscle impuissance is defined as a maximal inspiratory mouth pressure (PI,max) of less than 60 cmH2O (31) and can be measured with handheld, electronic portable devices, providing mechanically processed information on external inspiratory work, power and breathing pattern during loaded breathing tasks in patients with COPD. A recent study reason out that these information are valid estimation of physical units of energy during loaded breathing tasks, enabling healthcare providers to measure PI,max, peak inspiratory flow and valuate the load on inspiratory muscles in daily clinical practice (32). Also, it has been developed various pressure threshold loading medical devices, for standardized training, harmonize to current recommendations although there is no established guideline yet (33).The impact of IMT was extensively studied in recent years. Results from randomised controlled trials in patients with COPD show that IMT as a stand-alone therapy improves strength and endurance o f inspiratory muscles, improves symptoms (dyspnea) and exercise capacity (31,34). In a meta-analysis including 32 randomised controlled trials (31), IMT and its effects in patients with COPD were analysed and improved inspiratory muscle strength (+ 13 cmH2O 95% CI 0.54-0.82 p